BHAKTI –SUFI TRADITIONS

Chapter 2 

Answer in100-150 words 

1. Explain with examples what historians mean by the integration of cults. 

Answer:-

During the tenth to seventeenth centuries, an important trend in religious life in India was the worship of God in various forms. Many gods and goddesses appear in cultures and texts but they are simply different forms of the original deity. These main deities are Vishnu, Shiva and the goddesses Durga, Lakshmi and Parvati.

Historians have noticed two marked tendencies in the socio-religious life of those days. The first was the promotion of Brahmanical ideas. Brahmanical texts were reproduced in simple Sanskrit. They were now made available to women and Shudras, who, altogether, did not have access to Brahmanical literature. The second was the Brahmins who were working on faith and practice. This was a process of evolution, in which traditional classical traditions were constantly taking on new shapes as they were influenced by the traditions of ordinary people throughout the country.

Now let us look at the following two examples.

1. A good example of the above description is the temple of Jagannath at Puri
In Orissa. The temple is of Lord Jagannath who is just another form of Vishnu. The word Jagannath means the Lord of the Earth.

2. There were many local gods; Their statues were often created by tribal people in wood and stone. Even families began to get family gods. Goddesses were also created in wood and stone. They were all just different forms of Vishnu.

2. To what extent do you think the architecture of mosques in the subcontinent reflects a combination of universal ideals and local traditions? 

Answer:- 

The architecture of mosques in the subcontinent reflects the combination of universal ideals and local traditions in an important way. Some architectural features of mosques are universal – such as their orientation to Mecca, evident in the placement of the mihrab (prayer area) and minbar (pulpit). Of course, roofs and building materials vary. For example, a mosque in Kerala (c. 13th century) has a peak-like roof. The Atiya Mosque in Mymensingh district of Bangladesh was built of brick. Srinagar's Shah Hamadan Mosque on the banks of the Jhelum, often considered the "jewel in the crown" of all existing mosques in Kashmir, was built in 1395 . This is one of the best examples of Kashmiri wood architecture. It has peaks and beautifully carved eves. It is decorated with papier-mâché.

3. What were the similarities and differences between the be-shari‘a and ba-shari‘a sufi traditions? 

Answer:- 

Sharia is Islamic law that is indeed applied in Islamic countries. Sharia law originates from the Holy Book of the Koran, the Hadith (the law book of Islam) and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad.
In the Middle Ages, the Islamic world witnessed a major social and religious movement called the Sufi movement. The Sufi movement was people-centered, not God-centered. It believed that serving people was the true form of worship. There are many branches of the Sufi movement. A group of Sufi preachers took a very fundamentalist path. They were mystics who renounced the physical world and took up a life of asceticism. Moreover, they also rejected the supremacy of Sharia law. Such Sufis were called Be-Sharia.
On the other hand, there were some Sufi saints who criticized the monarchy and the extravagant lifestyle of the caliphs but did not reject Sharia law. Sharia laws were sacred to them. These Sufi saints have been called Be-Sharia.

4. Discuss the ways in which the Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas expressed critiques of the caste system. 

Answer:- The initial devotional movement was led by the Alvars and Nayanars. This was in the sixth century. The Alvars are those who were disciples of Vishnu and the Nayanars were those who claimed to be followers of Lord Shiva. They traveled from place to place and sang devotional songs in Tamil in the name of Shiva or Vishnu as the case may be. In addition to being a religious movement, it was also a social movement. Many historians believe that Alvars and Nayanars struck down the caste system and Brahminism. This is supported by the fact that the movement was open to people from different backgrounds. The devotees came from castes of Brahmins to artisans and even to people who were considered untouchables.

Virasaivasa was a 12th century movement in Karnataka. The movement was led by Vasavanna (1106-68), a Brahmin who was a minister in the palace of the Chalukya king. The followers of Vasavanna are called Virasaivas and they worshiped Siva. They were also called Lingayats, and probably more frequently Lingayats, meaning wearers of the penis. They challenged the caste system and they challenged the notion of being any caste polluter. This helped them to increase support among the marginalized sections of society. The Virasaivas also attacked some bad practices
Concepts not sanctioned by Scripture, such as marriage after puberty and the remarriage of widows. They also questioned the doctrine of reincarnation.

5. Describe the major teachings of either Kabir or Baba Guru Nanak, and the ways in which these have been transmitted. 

Answer:- 

Kabir is a great poet-and-saint of Indian society. He had an appeal among Hindus and Muslims alike as it is believed that he was bom as a Hindu but raised by a Muslim couple. he wrote poems which implored both communities to undertake social reforms.

The main teachings of Kabir were as follows:

1. Kabir described God as Nirankar (no form). He used words derived from the Islamic tradition such as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir but also used words from the Vedic tradition such as alakh (unseen) and nirakaar (formless). Hence, he freely adopted both traditions e.g. Islamic and Vedic.

2. He rejected idolatry and polytheism.

3. He emphasized the unity of God, although He can have many names.

4. He criticized the religious practices of Hindus and Muslims.

5. He also preached against racism.

6. He combined the Sufi tradition of love of God with the Hindi tradition of remembrance of God.

7. He also stressed the dignity of labour.

Therefore, the essence of Kabir's teachings was to live a simple life based on love and respect for all. He wrote in simple language for the common people of the country to understand.

Guru Nanak and his teachings

Guru Nanak was born in 1469 to a Hindu family at Nankana Saheb on the banks of the Rabi River. His birthplace is now in Pakistan. He learned Persian, Arabic, Hindi and mathematics. He spent time in the presence of various socio-religious movements with Sufi saints and devotees.

The main teachings of Guru Nanak are as follows:

1. He rejected the religious texts of both Hindus and Muslims.

2. He preached that God is formless as without any shape.

3. He criticized religious practices such as ceremonial baths, sacrifices, and idolatry, and emphasized simplicity.

4. He called upon his followers to connect to divine by remembering and repeating the divine name. Guru Nanak expressed himself in Punjabi, the language of the local people in a lyrical form called Shabad. Shabad can be recited in various ragas.


Write a short essay (about 250-300 words) on the following: 

6. Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterised Sufism. 

Answer:- 

The main beliefs and practices that characterize Sufism are as follows –

1. As a religious and political institution, the Sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the caliphate.

2. They were opposed to the orthodox definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur'an and Sunnah adopted by the theologians.

3. They emphasized seeking salvation through intense devotion and love for God.

4. They regarded the Prophet Muhammad as a perfect man and advised him to follow his example.

5. Sufis organized communities around khanqahs controlled by sheikhs, pirs or murshids.

6. Special initiation rites were developed in which initiates took an oath of allegiance, wore patched robes, and shaved their hair.

7. After the Sheikh’s death, his mausoleum or dargah became a focal point of devotion for his followers who made a pilgrimage or ziara to his grave on the occasion of the death anniversary or Urs.


7. Examine how and why rulers tried to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the sufis. 8. Analyse, with illustrations, why bhakti and sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages in which to express their opinions. 

Answer:-

The Nayanars were worshipers of Lord Shiva. From the 6th century it took the shape of a powerful devotional movement in South India. In addition to being popular among the people, the movement enjoyed the support and patronage of the rulers of the time. This is indicated by the following data:

1. A major part of South India was ruled by the Chola kings from the 9th to the 13th century. They gave considerable patronage to the saints of the Bhakti movement, including Naynar. Therefore, they donated land to the saints of the Bhakti movement and built temples to Shiva and Vishnu.

2. The most beautiful temples of Siva in South India, namely Chidambaram, were built at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholpuram under the patronage of the Chola rulers.

3. At the same time some of the most superb representations of Siva in bronze sculpture were produced. All this was possible because the rulers patronized the Nayanars.

4. The Nayanars had a large following among the cultivators.

The rulers tried to establish relations with the Nayanars and this is explained by the above description. It is not far to find the reason why they did it. One reason may be to bring holiness to their rule. The rulers also proclaimed their wealth and power by begging the preachers of the temples and the community of Nayana. Such actions may subsequently endear rulers to the people.

The Sufi tradition and the rulers of the Delhi Saltnet and the Mughals:

In the 12th Century, Delhi and a considerable part of India fell to the rule of Muslim rulers. This rule is known as the period of Delhi Sultanate. The rulers of Delhi Sultanate claimed themselves under Khalifate of Kabul and tried to legitimize their rule. The next step could have been establishing the rule of Shari‘a laws. However, the rulers realised for the very beginning that it was impractical. Under the Delhi Sultanate most of the people were not Muslim. Shari’a laws were not feasible also because lacked flexibity which a ruler needed to govern. The rulers of Delhi Sultanate wanted to take a practical path of governance without renouncing Islam. Sufi tradition gave them this opportunity. The same idea prevailed during the rule of the great Mughals too. Hence the rulers of Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal empire adopted the tradition of sufism.


8. Analyses, illustrations, why bhakti and sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages in which to express their opinions.

Answer: 

In medieval India, although Sanskrit and Persian may have been the language of the educated or at court, the vast majority of people living in villages spoke the local language. Therefore, devotion and Sufi saints needed to preach in the language of the common people. This was genuinely essential to make this movement really popular.

This is illustrated in the following examples:

1. Traditional devotional saints composed hymns in Sanskrit. Such hymns were often sung on special occasions inside the temple.

2. The Nayanars and the Alvars were traveling with the saints. They traveled far and

Wide, often with steps. They met people in different villages. These saints would only sing the verses in praise of God in the language of the local people. The language was only Tamil. These traveling saints established temples where prayers were offered in Tamil and devotional songs were composed by devotional saints.

3. The language was different in North India. Here, too, the saints took the language of the common people. Guru Nanak created Shabad in all Punjabis. Baba Farid and Swami Raidas (Ravidas) all composed in Punjabi and Hindustani.

4. Kabirdas, who lived in Benares, wrote in the vernacular which was close to Hindustani. He used words that were part of the local dialect there.

5. The Sufi tradition of singing songs on tombs, which is practiced only in the language of the locals. The temples were places of worship sung in Hindustani or Hindavi. Another Sufi saint, Baba Farid, also wrote works in Punjabi which even became part of the Guru Granth Sahib.

6. Some other sadhus also wrote in Kannada, Tamil and other languages.

Hence, we are inclined to agree with the view that the saints of Bhakti and Sufi movements composed in many languages and the language of the common man to connect with them.


9. Read any five of the sources included in this chapter and discuss the social and religious ideas that are expressed in them. 

Answer:-

The social and religious ideas expressed in the five sources are as follows:

1. Source 1. Chaturvedin Brahma skilled in the four Vedas) and "outcastes"- In this source Tondaradippodi opposes the caste system by stating that "outcastes" who express their love for Vishnu are strangers and are better than 'Chaturvedins" without allegiance to Vishnu. the 

2. Sources 4. Customs and the Real World – In this source, Vasavanna, who led the Virasaiva tradition in Karnataka, opposed Brahmanical customs. In his Bachana he describes that the followers of the Brahmanical tradition seeing a snake carved in stone, they poured milk into it but when they saw a real snake, they tried to kill him. This suggests that rituals are unnecessary.

3. Sources 5. A church in Khambat – About a farman (imperial edict) issued by Akbar to the people of Khambat in 1598 that no one should stand in the way of building a church there but allow the padris (fathers) to build a church. This proves that Akbar followed the policy of religious tolerance and people were allowed to follow any religion in his empire.

4. Sources 6. Tribute to Yogi – This is an excerpt from a letter written by Aurangzeb to Yogi in 1661-62 who sent him a piece of cloth and twenty-five rupees. It shows that by 1661-62, Aurangzeb was following a policy of religious tolerance and providing assistance to non-Muslims. Later, in 1678, Aurangzeb imposed Zazia on non-Muslims.

5. Sources 7. Pilgrimage of Mughal Princess Jahanara, 1643 – This is about Jahanara’s pilgrimage to the Dargah of Sheikh Muinuddin Sishti where she narrates her experience. This shows that the Sufi saints were also revered by the royal family.


Map work 

10. On an outline map of India, plot three major sufi shrines, and three places associated with temples (one each of a form of Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess).

Answer:-


Projects (choose one) 

11. Choose any two of the religious teachers/thinkers/ saints mentioned in this chapter, and find out more about their lives and teachings. Prepare a report about the area and the times in which they lived, their major ideas, how we know about them, and why you think they are important. 

Answer:-


12. Find out more about practices of pilgrimage associated with the shrines mentioned in this chapter. Are these pilgrimages still undertaken? When are these shrines visited? Who visits these shrines? Why do they do so? What are the activities associated with these pilgrimages?

Answer:-



Type By- Bikash Bora