Chapter 3
Hypothesis
1. 1. What is a project? Explain the nature of the project.
Answer : A project is an initial estimate of cause and effect.
The nature of a project can be understood by considering a few key aspects 一
(i) Temporary: - The project has a fixed beginning and end. They are undertaken to achieve specific goals within a specified time frame. the project concludes when the goals are met.
(ii) Unique: - Every project is unique. Even if you undertake a similar project, the specific goals, requirements and constraints will make it unique.
Projects are undertaken to create something new, be it a product, service or outcome. This could be building bridges, developing software programs or implementing new marketing campaigns.
Essentially, projects are distinct efforts with start and end dates, undertaken to create a specific outcome rather than part of ongoing operations.
2. 2. What are the different types of projects? explain.
Answer : There are three types of projects. That is 一
(i) Subject-related projects
(ii) Rules related projects
(iii) Environmental sustainability projects
These types of projects are discussed in detail below ―
(i) Subject -related projects: - How or in what order an event happened is known. Butwe don't know who caused it. The perception that then arises in our minds about the agent of the event is called the agent-related project. For example, a house has been burglarized. The thieves stole under what circumstances and under what rules. But it is not known who stole it. The project that is then formed about the thief is called a subject-related project.
(ii) Rule -related projects: - If the agent or cause of an event is known, but how or according to what rule the agent caused the event is not known, a project formed about this unknown rule is called a rule-related project. For example, a house is robbed. We know who stole it. The victims were identified as 20-year-old Arun Kumar and 18-year-old Arun Kumar. Then the project that is formed about this unknown method is called a rule project.
(iii) Environmental Conditioning Projects: - Environmental conditioning is the collection of environmental conditions. Actors, rules and environment also play a role in making any event happen. We know about the cause and rules of an event, but we do not know under what combination of environmental conditions the event occurred. Then the project that is formed about this unknown environmental condition is called an environmental conditioning project.
3. What is a project? What are valid project terms?
Answer : A project is an initial estimate of cause and effect.
Valid project terms are listed below 一
(i) Relevance
(ii) Verifiability
(iii) well-established, consistent with and self-consistent with pre-established projects
(iv) The project should not be vague, vague, bizarre or imaginary, it should be well-defined, clear and conceivable
(v) The ability to predict.
4. The Give examples:
(a) Subject-related projects.
Answer : For example, a house has been stolen. The thieves stole under what circumstances and under what rules. But it is not known who stole it. The project that is then formed about the thief is called a subject-related project.
(b) Environmental projects.
Answer : For example, a house was robbed. We know who stole it. The victims were identified as 20-year-old Arun Kumar and 18-year-old Arun Kumar. Then the project that is formed about this unknown method is called a rule project.
(c) Rule-related projects.
For example, we know about the cause and rules of an event, but we do not know the combination of environmental conditions under which the event occurred.the project that is formed about this unknown is called an environmental conditioning
5. 5. Define.
(a) Projects,
Answer: - The definition of project given by the logician Mill is given below
"A project is a hypothesis formed without any sound evidence or based on insufficient evidence to reach conclusions based on factual evidence, which will be true or likely to be true if the conclusions are found to be consistent with known facts.
(b) Subject-related projects,
Answer : It is known how or by what rule an event occurred. Butwe don't know who caused it. The perception that then arises in our minds about the agent of the event is called the agent-related project.
(c) rules related projects,
Answer: - If the agent or cause of an event is known, but how or according to what rule the agent caused the event is not known, a project that is formed about this unknown rule is called a rule-related project.
(d) interpretive projects,
Answer : When a specific event occurs, such projects are formed to explain the phenomenon under investigation through other events. Problems arise when an event cannot be understood on the basis of previous experience and accumulated knowledge. Ideas are created in the mind to solve this problem and these ideas are the explanatory projects.
(e) descriptive projects,
Answer: - Descriptive projects are usually used to provide signals to determine the orderly relationship between complex events or data to be investigated. The main purpose of a narrative project is to provide a symbolic overview of events.
(f) analogous projects,
Answer: - Analogical projects are actually augmented and improved levels with descriptive projects. Analogical projects are projects in which it is assumed that what is true of one class will be true of another event or class, if both classes have certain common, morphological properties.
(g) implementation projects,
Answer : A project is called an operational project if it is formed only to continue research despite knowing that it is incomplete or unsatisfactory in the absence of a more reliable project.
(h) Ad hoc projects
Answer : A special project that is formed to explain a well-established theory and attempts to explain that exceptional event or class of events is called an ad hoc project.
(i) Existent cause.
Answer : An existing cause is a cause whose existence can be perceived by the senses.
6. 6. Write a brief:
(a) Project
Answer : A project is an initial estimate of cause and effect. Many people have given many definitions of projects, one of which is mentioned below:
According to logician Mill, "A project is a hypothesis formed without any sound evidence or based on insufficient evidence to reach conclusions based on factual evidence, which will be true or likely to be true if the conclusions are consistent with known facts.
There are three types of projects. That is 一
(i) Subject-related projects
(ii) Rules related projects
(iii) Environmental sustainability projects
These types of projects are discussed in detail below ―
(i) Subject -related projects: - How or in what order an event happened is known. Butwe don't know who caused it. The perception that then arises in our minds about the agent of the event is called the agent-related project. For example, a house has been burglarized. The thieves stole under what circumstances and under what rules. But it is not known who stole it. The project that is then formed about the thief is called a subject-related project.
(ii) Rule -related projects: - If the agent or cause of an event is known, but how or according to what rule the agent caused the event is not known, a project formed about this unknown rule is called a rule-related project. For example, a house is robbed. We know who stole it. The victims were identified as 20-year-old Arun Kumar and 18-year-old Arun Kumar. Then the project that is formed about this unknown method is called a rule project.
(iii) Environmental Conditioning Projects: - Environmental conditioning is the collection of environmental conditions. Actors, rules and environment also play a role in making any event happen. We know about the cause and rules of an event, but we do not know under what combination of environmental conditions the event occurred. Then the project that is formed about this unknown environmental condition is called an environmental conditioning project.
(b) Interpretive projects
Answer : When a specific event occurs, such projects are formed to explain the phenomenon under investigation through other events. Problems arise when an event cannot be understood on the basis of previous experience and accumulated knowledge. Ideas are created in the mind to solve this problem and these ideas are the explanatory projects.
(c) Descriptive projects
Answer: - Descriptive projects are usually used to provide signals to determine the orderly relationship between complex events or data to be investigated. The main purpose of a narrative project is to provide a symbolic overview of events.
(d) Implementation projects
Answer: - If a project is formed only to start research work even though it is incomplete due to lack of more reliable projects, it is called an operational project Such projects are accepted on a temporary basis. For example, “The concept of electrofluids is a functional project. Scientists also temporarily undertook such projects and continued their research.
(e) Subject-related projects
Answer : It is known how or by what rule an event occurred. But we don't know who caused it. The perception that then arises in our minds about the agent of the event is called the agent-related project. For example, a house has been burglarized. The thieves stole under what circumstances and under what rules. But it is not known who stole it. The project that is then formed about the thief is called a subject-related project.
The laws of gravity are known and the path that Uranus should follow according to these laws is also known. However, in reality, Uranus is not moving in a fixed orbit, it is deviating from its orbit. The astronomers then formed the project that there must be another planet in the sky whose gravity caused Uranus to deviate from its orbit. Such projects by astronomers are called karma-related projects.
(f) Rule-related projects
Answer: - If the agent or cause of an event is known, but how or according to what rule the agent caused the event is not known, a project that is formed about this unknown rule is called a rule-related project.
For example, a house is robbed. We know who stole it. The victims were identified as 20-year-old Arun Kumar and 18-year-old Arun Kumar. Then the project that is formed about this unknown method is called a rule project.
(g) Experimental extreme instances
Answer: - An example of an experimental extreme instance can illustrate two things 一
(i) Extreme Case Sampling in Research : - This is a research technique in which scientists deliberately study unusual or rare cases to gain insights that would not be possible in the case of ordinary subjects. For example, a researcher might study survivors of extreme weather events to understand human resilience, or highly successful entrepreneurs to understand the psychology of business breakthroughs.
(ii) Pushing limitations in experiments : - This is when an experiment goes beyond the usual parameters and looks at what happens. For example, an engineer testing a new material for a bridge may encounter forces far greater than he or she would encounter in real-world use to evaluate its breaking point.
7. 7. Give a short answer:
(a) What are the different projects?
Answer: - Different types of projects are ―
(i) Subject-related projects
(ii) Rules related projects
(iii) Environmental sustainability projects
(iv) Interpretive projects
(v) Descriptive projects
(vi) Analogous projects
(vii) Implementation projects
(b) What is the extreme example?
Answer: - Natural phenomena are also observed in the project. The possible cause of the incident is assumed in the mind. Some conclusions are drawn from approximate assumptions, and these conclusions are compared with known events in the real world to see if they match. If there is a similarity, the concept will be true and if there is a discrepancy, it will be false. Unnecessary parts must be omitted when observing the incident. The cause of the event under investigation will be true only by observing the extreme examples necessary to explain the cause of the event. Such examples can be called cham examples.
(c) What are the different levels of the project?
Answer: - The different stages of the project are ―
(i) Monitoring of natural phenomena
(ii) Project structure
(iii) Decision secretion
(iv) Observe whether it matches the facts.
(d) Describe the four conditions of a valid project.
Ans: - The four conditions of a valid project are 一
(i) Relevance
(ii) The ability to predict
(iii) Verifiability
(iv) Consistency and self consistency with well-established, pre-established projects.
(e) According to Stebbing, what are the different types of projects?
Answer: - According to Stebbing, the different types of projects are ᅠ
(i) Interpretive projects
(ii) Descriptive projects
(iii) Analogous projects
8. 8. Determine the difference:
(a) Subject-related projects and rule-related projects.
The differences between verb - related projects and rule-related projects are mentioned below
(i) After knowing how an event happened, a project is made to find out what or who caused this event.
On the other hand, a rule-related project is a project that is done after knowing about the doer of an action to find out the rules or systems by which the doer performed the action.
(ii) A doer-related project is a project to learn about an unknown thief after knowing the behavior of the thief when a house is stolen.
On the other hand, a rule-related project is a project to learn about the unknown behavior of the thief after learning about the theft in a house.
(iii) Another name for a subject-related project is an "explanatory project".
On the other hand, another name for rule-related projects is "descriptive projects."
(b) Explanatory projects and descriptive projects.
The differences between explanatory projects and descriptive projects are as follows
Problems arise when an event cannot be understood on the basis of previous experience and accumulated knowledge. There are various ideas to solve this problem. This is how this type of project is formed. This project seeks to provide a proper explanation of what happened. This project is an explanatory project.
For example, the concept of theft is assumed to explain the disappearance of a piece of gold jewelry.
On the other hand, the main purpose of a descriptive project is to provide signals to determine the orderly relationship between events or data. Descriptive projects are formed to help scientists proceed with models or sample-based descriptions of the actual relationships between the phenomena they investigate.
9. 9. Answer:
(a) What is the first level of the project?
Answer : The first stage of the project is the observation of natural phenomena.
(b) What are the stages of the project?
Answer : There are four stages of the project.
(c) Predictability is a condition of the project .
(d) How many types of project certification are there?
Answer : There are two types of project certification.
